How Much Do You Know About Roman Emperor Augustus?

Augustus died in the city of Nola, outside Naples — his last words were purported to be, "Have I played the part well? Then applaud as I exit." Augustus' body was returned to Rome, where his successor Tiberius read the eulogy at his funeral. In the wake of his passing, Augustus was declared a god among the Roman pantheon.

With no male offspring to consider, Augustus chose Roman general Tiberius to succeed him as emperor. Augustus' third wife was Livia, who had given birth to Tiberius during a previous marriage. Despite his initial reluctance, Tiberius had no choice but to accept the position of emperor, and he took over the empire upon Augustus' death in 14 CE.

The great poetic works of Ovid angered Augustus — notably "Ars Amatoria," which offered guidance to adulterers — leading to Ovid's banishment to the shores of the Black Sea. Despite his exile, Ovid went on to create his greatest work, the epic poem "Metamorphoses." He would later beg Augustus to allow for his return, though those requests were denied.

Augustus' life was filled with military triumphs and expanding Rome's public works system. The Battle of Philippi (42 BCE) saw Augustus — Octavian at the time — defeat Brutus and Cassius. Four years later, he amassed a powerful naval fleet to defeat Sextus Pompey. Decades later, in 6 CE, Augustus created the Vigiles, which served as Rome's permanent firefighting force. The Battle of Marathon occurred centuries before Augustus was born.

Toward the end of Augustus' life, he established the “cohortes urbanae” (urban cohorts) as a citywide security force. Each member served for 20 years and received 50% more pay than ordinary legionaries but less salary than the famed Praetorian Guard. The “cohortes urbanae” were tasked with keeping public order, and each member received 500 sesterces in Augustus' will.

Inspired by a similar Persian model, Augustus instituted the “cursus publicus” as Rome's first postal service — the system was designed to transport military messages and tax revenues between provinces. Augustus made sure that one messenger was tasked with each delivery so that they could better answer questions about the package along their route, and the average messenger traveled an estimated 50 miles per day.

Though August would come to be named after Augustus, it was first called Sextilis. Initially, the Roman calendar began with Martius (later known as March) and only had 10 months, so the sixth month was called “Sextilis.” When January and February were added to make the 12-month calendar, the months of Quintilis and Sextilis were renamed July and August after Julius Caesar and Augustus, respectively.

Augustus sought to rebuild the temples that had fallen into disrepair during the wars that preceded his reign and subsequently restored 82 temples in his first year as emperor alone. Among them were the Temple of Jupiter on Capitoline Hill, the Temple of Apollo on Palatine Hill, and the Temple of Mars Ultor in the Forum of Augustus.

It's impossible to discuss Marcus Agrippa's legacy without mentioning Augustus. Augustus wasn't the only emperor with whom he had a strong connection, however. Agrippa's daughter — Agrippina the Elder — gave birth to the future Emperor Caligula, and she was the grandmother of Nero, who would also become emperor.

Augustus' only offspring was his daughter Julia, whom he had with a woman named Scribonia. Julia was married to Augustus' chief lieutenant Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, with whom she had three sons and two daughters, though their elder two boys were adopted by Augustus himself. After Agrippa died, Julia was forced to marry Tiberius, and she was known to have many affairs. Augustus, having made adultery illegal, exiled her.

Due to the extent of Augustus’ ambitious building program, numerous monuments celebrating his reign have survived, including the carved marble Ara Pacis, an altar of peace celebrating his military victories. Fragments of the altar were uncovered in the 16th century, but it wasn’t fully excavated until 1937. To protect the marble structure built in 30 BCE, the Ara Pacis now stands in a dedicated museum in Rome.

Caesar Augustus established the elite Praetorian Guard as his team of personal bodyguards. Under Augustus, nine cohorts totaled at least 4,500 men, but that number grew by many thousands under later emperors. Two prefects were appointed to lead the guard, and they were the only men allowed to carry a sword in the emperor’s presence.

Augustus liked to promote traditional values and made adultery illegal during his reign, despite allegedly conducting multiple affairs himself. He punished his own daughter for having a number of lovers outside marriage by banishing her to the inhospitable island of Ventotene.

Caesar Augustus was a great patron of the arts; he supported a program of grand Roman architecture and encouraged artists to create statues in his honor. He also supported the most prominent poets of his time: Horace, Propertius, and Virgil, in particular, ensured Roman poetry flourished during his reign. Virgil's “Aeneid,” based on the mythological founding of the Roman people, reflected the values of the Augustan age.

Augustus rejected the dictatorship that his great-uncle Julius Caesar had held before him, instead preferring to set up a principate, a form of monarchy led by an emperor with power held for life. Naming himself “Primus Inter Pares” (first among equals) gave the impression that he was not a dictator, yet he retained ultimate control over the Roman state.

One of Augustus’ major triumphs was the expansion of the Roman Empire, which almost doubled in size during his reign. Using battle and diplomacy, Augustus conquered or secured alliances with states across Europe and Asia Minor. The extent of the empire meant Augustus spent the majority of his reign away from Rome.

One of the key elements of Augustus’ legacy was the impressive legislative reorganization that created the state of stability known as Pax Romana, or Roman peace. Caesar Augustus governed and protected the provinces while still allowing them to make their own local laws, as long as they paid tax and tribute to Rome. This peaceful period allowed for the spread of Greek and Roman heritage, and the widespread growth of Judeo-Christian philosophies.

The Second Triumvirate was a power-sharing agreement established in 43 BCE between Octavian, Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilus Lepidus. However, Mark Antony began an affair with Cleopatra, and in 31 BCE, Octavian declared war. (Lepidus was a minor player, and Octavian supplanted him in 37 BCE.) At the Battle of Actium, Octavian’s fleet defeated Antony, who then retreated to Egypt, where he and Cleopatra died by suicide, making the now-named Augustus the undisputed rule of Rome.

Sixteen-year-old Octavius traveled to Hispania (modern-day Spain) to fight alongside his great-uncle, Julius Caesar. Octavius impressed Caesar so much that he adopted the teen as his heir. When Caesar was assassinated, Octavian was embroiled in the murky world of Roman politics as he fought various factions to secure his inheritance as ruler of Rome.

The first Roman emperor held many names and titles over his lifetime. He was born Gaius Octavius Thurinus in 63 BCE, but his name was changed to Octavian when he was adopted by Julius Caesar in 44 BCE. His final name change came in 27 BCE when the Roman Senate granted him the honorific title of Augustus, meaning “exalted one.” He was also called “Caesar Augustus,” starting the tradition of Roman emperors using the title “Caesar.”